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DUCE · #1 (**permalink**) April 13th, 2004, 02:47 AM

so here's that long awaited (although, I think, crappy) essay. It was written not necessarily to prove one way or another whether Italy was totalitarian...but rather to raise some questions and just get you thinking about it one way or a nother. Also, keep in mind that there was a specific word limit that we had to adhere to, so things aren't as in much detail as I would have liked them to be. It'll be in a few posts, as I can't seem to get an actual website up and running. Sorry for the inconvinience.

In order to determine if Fascist Italy was really a totalitarian state, one must first have some knowledge on the nature of totalitarianism and the differences between totalitarian and authoritarian governments. The term "totalitarian" was first used by democratic critics in Italy during the early 1920s to describe the new Fascist government, and was eventually used to refer to Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in the 1930s. Historians, such as Bruce F. Pauley, have come to a general definition of totalitarianism, although they still cannot agree as to whether or no the definitions fit entirely with any of the so-called repressive states. They emphasize the following:
(1) The great power of the leader
(2) The significance of an exclusive ideology
(3) The existence of a sole mass party,
(4) The use of terror to eliminate all opposition, usually carried out by a secret police,
(5) Censorship over the media as well as the educational systems, and
(6) A desire to change the basic social, artistic, and literary values of the country.

As with almost all of the dictatorships, a serious event or series of events took place in order to set the stage for an eventual seizure of power. The fall of the Weimar Republic was a critical step towards the ris of Hitler in Germany during the early 1930s, and the October Revolution of 1917, and the resulting Civil War, playes a role in the rise of Bolshevism, consequently leading to Stalin in the USSR. In Italy, it was a number of events that helped Mussolini rise to power. The failures of Liberal Italy, combined with the dissatisfaction of the public over the Treaty of Versailles, were some of the more important factors that lead to the downfall of the former government of the country. The public fear of a revolution, such as the one that had taken place in Russia, as well as the desire for national glory were manipulated to give an advantage to the newest political group, the Fascists. Mussolini had founded the Fasci di Combattimento (literally "Groups for Combat") on March 23, 1919, which, in 1921, became the Partito Nazionale Fascista, the National Fascist Party, after a congress in Rome. On October 27, 1922, Mussolini's Fascists marched on Rome; while Mussolini conviently stayed near the Swiss border, ready to flee if the situation called. On October 29, however, King Victor Emanuel III officially recognized the Fascists as a government party and, at the age of thirty-nine, Mussolini became the youngest Prime Minister in the history of Italy.

Italy now had a fascist Prime Minister, but not a true fascist government. For one, Fascist governments are almost always at war, or are trying ot begin one. During the rise of Mussolini, however, the First World War had just ended. Nevertheless, the Fascists used it as a means of propaganda. Within two days of being declared Prime Minister, Mussolini discarded all pretense of a democratic government. New Ministers within the Cabinet were selected from a list of high-ranking Fascists and replaced those who had originally been elected to government before Mussolini had gained control. He was at the center of the party and was the focal poin of the Party institutions as well as the Cabinet, Parliament, the Corporations and the Grand Councel of Fascism. During the first two years of his leadership of an approved government, Mussolini had presided over a combination of political parties and excluded only the socialists. Herman FIner, and expert on Fascist Italy, states similarities between Mussolni's roles as the head of state to that of a British Pirme Minister in that they often shared the same responsibilities. The main difference, however, was that a British Prime Minister was subject to constant criticism, whereas the Fascist system was exactly the opposite. Under no cirucmstances was the Head of State subject to such disapproval, as anyone who dared voice such an opinion was arrested and sent to prison.

Mussolini became consumed in his quest for power. During a meeting of the parliament, Mussolini asked the Senate, "Who could have stopped me from making myself a dictator? Who could have resisted a movement that represented not just 300,000 party ticket holders but 300,000 rifles?" This was an obvious example of Mussolin's willingness to use force if necessary. Mussoin pictured himself as the "saviour of the people"; he believed that it was because of his leadership and his actions that the Fascist government came to power. This view of himself eventually corrupted him, and caused him to become secluded and sheltered in everything he did, which subsequently led to his downfall.

During 1925-26 the total power granted bt the December Laws of 1925 was toughened by a series of repressive measure. All opposition - political or otherwise - was banned; cnesorship was introduced; appointed officials replaced elected governments; and the basics of a police state were created. These measures increased the power not of the Party, but instead they increased the power of the DUCE. The law passed on January 31, 1926 conceded to the executive power the ability to establish legal standards without any parliamentary control.

In 1934, Italo Balbo, arguably the best pilot in the Italian Air Force and one of Mussolini's closest aquaintances, was quoted as saying "Mussolini thinks he is God now. he has lost all contact with the country and no one can make him listen to reason any more." He was now the Capo di Stato, the Head of State and was no longer responsible to anyone except the Crown. Mussolini was the ultimate organ of the executive power and chose his ministers, who were accountable to him as well as the King. Without his authorization, the Chamber could not discuss any matter. He had the authority to request that a proposed law that had been rejected by one of the two Chambers be put to another vote after three months. This authority proved vital to Mussolini in that when one of his planned reforms for the country were initially rejected, he was able to bring up the issue again and, usually, win the decision.

In the Encylopedia Italiana printed in 1932, Mussolini wrote, "Before everything, Fascism believes neither in the possibility nor the utility of perpetual peace...only war brings all human energies to a maximum tension and imprints the mark of nobility upon the peoples who have the virtue to face it" Mussolini created the doctine for the sole purpose that he thought Fascists needed something to refer to if and when they were questioned. The Italian population had already accepted Fascism as a way of life, and the doctrine was fashoined exclusively for the sake of having one. The ideology was one that changed as often as the party did; it was never really a set idea, rather, it changed whenever it needed to, in order to keep the public satisfied. Facism did indeed have a doctine, as with every ideology, but the facto that sets it apart from others is that Fascism, as a movement existed well before the docrine was ever produced. Mussolini wrote the doctrine, titled Fundamental Ideals, in order to make the Fascist ideology official to the rest of the world. The main idea of the policy was that the nation should be bound together by the individuals of the country, who werew to be bound together by a 'decent' and 'honorable' law. It was extremely anti-utopian in that it described Fascism as a realist ideology, which knew that life was hard. It preached that man should know this and in turn do one's part for the State, regardless of difficulty. The doctrine was also anti-liberal, stating that "the State is all embracing; outside of it no human or spiritual values can exist, much less have value". Because Mussolini himself wrote the doctrine, it was also very anti-socialist, suggesting that Fascism was superior over the class system and that everyone should work together in order to help the State.

In general, the doctrine was one of action. Fascists were told to believe that inactivity of any sort was death, and a man must be ready to act in order to prove and defend his rights as a Fascist and as an Italian. Finally, the doctrine was one that focused on activism, futurism, and nationalism. Mussoini tried to bring out the pride in Italians, and blamed Liberal Italy for the failures and the disgrace brought to them during the First World War. In it, Mussolini argued that Liberalism was crueler than any religious war through the carnage it had brought about prior to and during World War One.

Mussolini had always had his 'ways' of removing rival politicans, but the legal process of removing the opposition began with the passing of the Election Law in 1923. Mussolini banned organized political opposition and abolished the local governments. Each was replaced by an appointee, known as the podesta. They werew responsible to the Prefect in the area, and therefore were responsible to the central government as well.

The existence of the independent Church presented an extraordinary obstacle for Mussolini. He understood the importance of the Church to the Italian life and soon realized that he could not expect complete political support until an agreement was made with the Vatican, which at the time did not formally recognize the legality of the State.The Lateran Pact of 1929 allowed the Church to be the only authorized non-fascist organization in Italy. This contract reached between the Church and the State marked the peak of Mussolini's leadership.

Although Fascist Italy was a single party state, it was not a "party-state" such as Nazi germant or Soviet Russia. While the National Fascist Party was responsible for the "education" of Italy's youth and the promotion of the party and its ideals, true power rested elsewhere, primarily in the established scheme of the state. The party's funcitons inside the state werew reduced to a minimum. Its chief purpose was as an extension of the police and militia wiht a general administrative role over its members. From 1932 to 1939, the National Fascist Party performed a decorative role, and - it could be argued - was chiefly a means of propaganda for Mussolini and Fascist Italy.

[ 17. April 2004, 03:28 PM: Message edited by: DUCE ]